IT · Unit 1

Government & Citizenship 政府与公民基础

Key terms, main ideas, test-ready rules, common mistakes, and a 15-question self-check.
英文为主、中文对照；自测答错不会立刻揭晓答案，可以先重想再确认。

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1 · Key Terms 核心术语表

25 terms that the whole unit is built on. Read the example column — the test usually asks you to recognise the term inside a situation, not to recite the definition. 这 25 个词是整单元的地基。重点看「例子」一栏：考试通常给你一个情境让你判断属于哪个概念，而不是默写定义。

Term中文MeaningExample
Government 政府 The institution through which a society makes and enforces its public policies. Congress passes a budget; agencies carry it out.
Public policy 公共政策 Everything a government decides to do or not do — laws, regulations, programs, spending. A state rule limiting water use during a drought.
Legislative power 立法权 The power to make law. A legislature writing a new statute.
Executive power 行政权 The power to execute, enforce, and administer the law. A president directing police and agencies.
Judicial power 司法权 The power to interpret the law, decide cases, and settle disputes. A court striking down an unconstitutional law.
State 国家（政治单位） A political community: people, a defined territory, sovereignty, and a government. (In U.S. federal usage, “state” also means 州.) The United States, Japan, France.
Nation 民族 A group of people who share culture, language, history, or descent — with or without a state of their own. The Cherokee; the Kurds.
Sovereignty 主权 Supreme and absolute power inside a territory, subject to no higher authority. A state making its own laws without outside approval.
Autocracy 专制（一人统治） Rule by one person holding unlimited power. The broad category that includes dictatorship and absolute monarchy. An absolute monarch who answers to no one.
Oligarchy 寡头统治 Rule by a small group — often the military, a party elite, or wealthy families. A junta of generals ruling after a coup.
Theocracy 神权政治 Rule by religious authority; law is derived from religion and rulers claim divine guidance. A cleric-led government whose courts apply religious law.
Dictatorship 独裁 One person (or a tiny group) holds absolute power, usually taken and kept by force, and is not accountable to the people. A leader who cancels elections and rules by decree.
Democracy 民主 A government in which supreme political authority rests with the people. Free elections that can peacefully remove a leader.
Republic 共和国 An indirect democracy: the people are sovereign but rule through elected representatives who are accountable to them, under law. The United States.
Direct democracy 直接民主 Citizens themselves vote on laws and policies, with no representative in between. Ancient Athens; a ballot initiative voted on by the people.
Representative democracy 代议制民主 Citizens elect representatives who make laws and decisions for them. Also called indirect democracy. Voters electing a legislature that writes the laws.
Unitary government 单一制政府 One central government holds all power; local units exist only at its discretion and can be changed or abolished by it. Great Britain, France, Japan.
Federal government 联邦制政府 Power is divided and shared between a national government and state/regional governments; each level has its own authority. The United States, Germany.
Confederation 邦联 A union of independent states; most power stays with the members and the central authority is weak and dependent on them. The EU; the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation.
Division of powers 分权 Splitting government authority among branches (legislative, executive, judicial) and/or levels (national, state). Congress makes law, the president enforces it, courts interpret it.
Presidential government 总统制 The executive and the legislature are separate and independent; the president is elected separately and serves a fixed term. The United States.
Parliamentary government 议会制 The executive (prime minister and cabinet) is chosen from, and is part of, the legislature, and can be removed by a vote of no confidence. Great Britain.
Popular sovereignty 人民主权 The people are the source of all political power; government derives its authority from their consent. “We the People…” opening the U.S. Constitution.
Social contract 社会契约 The idea that people give up some freedom to a government in exchange for protection and order. Locke's and Hobbes' explanations of why government exists.
Natural rights 自然权利 Rights people hold by birth, not by gift of a ruler: life, liberty, and property (Locke). The claim behind the Declaration's “unalienable rights.”

2 · Main Ideas 核心要点

Eight blocks, each with the English point on the left and the Chinese on the right. On a phone they stack. 共八块，左边英文、右边中文；手机上自动改为上下排列。

A. What government is 政府是什么

  • Government is the institution that makes and enforces a society's public policies.
  • It holds three kinds of power: legislative (make law), executive (enforce and administer law), judicial (interpret law and settle disputes).
  • Public policy covers everything a government chooses to do or not do — not just statutes.
  • 政府是一个社会用来制定并执行公共政策的机构。
  • 政府握有三种权力：立法权（制定法律）、行政权（执行与实施法律）、司法权（解释法律、裁决纠纷）。
  • 公共政策包括政府选择做与不做的一切事，不只是成文法律。

B. Four characteristics of a state 国家的四个特征

  • Population — the people who make up the state.
  • Territory — land with recognised boundaries.
  • Sovereignty — supreme power inside that territory, with no higher authority above it.
  • Government — the political organisation that makes and enforces policy.
  • Mnemonic: P-T-S-G. A written constitution is not one of the four.
  • 人口——组成国家的人民。
  • 领土——有公认边界的土地。
  • 主权——在该领土内的最高权力，之上没有更高权威。
  • 政府——制定并执行政策的政治组织。
  • 记忆口诀 P-T-S-G；成文宪法不算四特征之一。

C. Democracy, republic, and representation 民主、共和国与代议制

  • Democracy: supreme power rests with the people.
  • Direct democracy: the people vote on laws themselves (Athens).
  • Indirect / representative democracy: the people elect representatives who decide.
  • A republic is an indirect democracy under the rule of law — so a republic is a form of democracy, not its opposite.
  • The United States is a representative democracy — a constitutional federal republic.
  • 民主：最高权力属于人民。
  • 直接民主：人民自己投票决定法律（如雅典）。
  • 间接／代议制民主：人民选出代表来决策。
  • 共和国是法治之下的间接民主——所以共和国本身就是民主的一种，不是民主的反面。
  • 美国是代议制民主——宪政联邦共和国。

D. Four principles of democracy 民主的四个原则

  • Popular sovereignty — the people are the source of political power.
  • Majority rule with minority rights — the majority decides, but the minority's rights are protected.
  • Individual freedom — personal liberties are guaranteed.
  • Equality of all persons before the law — equal rights and equal legal standing.
  • Not a principle: equal economic outcomes. Democracy promises political equality, not equal wealth.
  • 人民主权——人民是政治权力的来源。
  • 多数决＋保护少数——由多数决定，但少数的权利受保护。
  • 个人自由——保障个人自由。
  • 法律面前人人平等——权利平等、法律地位平等。
  • 不属于民主原则的是「经济成果平均分配」——民主承诺政治平等，不承诺财富均等。

E. Where power sits: federal, unitary, confederation 权力放在哪一级

  • Federal: national and state governments each have real, constitutionally protected authority.
  • Unitary: one central government holds the power; local governments are its creatures and can be abolished by it.
  • Confederation: independent states keep the power; the centre is weak and depends on them.
  • Unitary does not mean undemocratic — Britain is unitary and democratic.
  • 联邦制：中央与州各有受宪法保障的实权。
  • 单一制：权力集中在中央；地方政府由中央设立，中央也可撤销。
  • 邦联制：独立各州保留权力，中央很弱、依赖各州。
  • 单一制 ≠ 不民主——英国既是单一制又是民主国家。

F. Presidential vs parliamentary 总统制与议会制

  • Presidential: executive and legislature are separate and independent. The president is elected separately, serves a fixed term, and cannot be removed by the legislature except by impeachment.
  • Parliamentary: the executive is drawn from the legislature and stays part of it. It governs only while it keeps parliament's confidence and can be removed by a no-confidence vote.
  • Trade-off: presidential systems gain stability but risk gridlock; parliamentary systems gain speed but can change governments quickly.
  • 总统制：行政与立法彼此独立。总统单独选举、任期固定，除弹劾外立法机关不能罢免。
  • 议会制：行政由议会产生并属于议会。只要议会信任就能执政，也可能被不信任投票赶下台。
  • 取舍：总统制稳定但易僵持（gridlock）；议会制高效但政府可能频繁更替。

G. Four theories of the origin of the state 国家起源四理论

  • Force theory — one person or group forced everyone in an area to submit.
  • Evolutionary theory — the state grew naturally: family → clan → tribe → state.
  • Divine right theory — the state is created by God and rulers are chosen by God or royal birth.
  • Social contract theory — people agreed to give up some freedom for protection and order; the state exists to serve the people's will.
  • 强力论——一人或一群人以武力迫使某地区所有人臣服。
  • 演化论——国家自然生长：家庭 → 氏族 → 部落 → 国家。
  • 神权论——国家由神创造，统治者由神选或凭王室血统。
  • 社会契约论——人们约定让渡部分自由换取保护与秩序；国家存在是为服务人民意志。

H. Hobbes and Locke 霍布斯与洛克

  • Hobbes (Leviathan): people are naturally selfish and violent; without government life is a “war of all against all.” A strong ruler keeps order — that is why people accept the social contract.
  • Locke (Two Treatises of Government): people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Government exists to protect them; if it breaks that trust, the people may rebel.
  • Same starting point (social contract), different conclusion: Hobbes emphasises order, Locke emphasises rights and the right of resistance.
  • 霍布斯《利维坦》：人天性自私暴虐；没有政府，生活就是「一切人对一切人的战争」。需要强大统治者维持秩序——这就是人们接受社会契约的原因。
  • 洛克《政府论》：人拥有生命、自由、财产的自然权利。政府存在的目的是保护这些权利；政府背弃信任时，人民有权反抗。
  • 同样从「社会契约」出发，结论不同：霍布斯重秩序，洛克重权利与反抗权。

3 · Test-Ready Rules 关键规则 / 判断口诀

Most questions are decided by one of these six checks. Ask the question in the left column, answer it, and the term follows. 大部分题目都能用这六条判断。先问自己左栏的问题，答案出来，术语就出来了。

Rule 1 · One / Few / Many

Who rules? One → autocracy · a small group → oligarchy · the people → democracy (Aristotle's classification). 谁在统治？一人 → 专制；少数人 → 寡头；人民 → 民主（亚里士多德的分类）。

Rule 2 · Final authority

Where does final authority sit? Centre only → unitary · shared with states by constitution → federal · states keep it, centre depends on them → confederation. 最终权力在哪？只在中央 → 单一制；与州依宪法共享 → 联邦制；各州保留、中央依赖它们 → 邦联。

Rule 3 · Executive inside?

Is the executive part of the legislature? Yes → parliamentary · No, separately elected → presidential. 行政首脑是否属于立法机关？是 → 议会制；否、单独选举 → 总统制。

Rule 4 · Accountability

Can the people remove the rulers peacefully? Yes → democracy · No, power held by force → dictatorship. 人民能否和平换掉统治者？能 → 民主；不能、靠武力掌权 → 独裁。

Rule 5 · P-T-S-G

Four features of a state: Population, Territory, Sovereignty, Government. Constitution, flag, army, and democracy are not on the list. 国家四特征：人口、领土、主权、政府。宪法、国旗、军队、民主都不在其中。

Rule 6 · State ≠ nation

A state is a legal-political unit; a nation is a cultural group. A nation may have no state; a state may contain many nations. state（国家）是法律政治单位；nation（民族）是文化群体。民族可以没有国家，国家可以包含多个民族。

4 · Common Mistakes 易错点

These are the traps that cost points even when the vocabulary is known. 这些是最容易「单词都认识、题还是做错」的地方。

  • ✗ “A republic is not a democracy.” ✓ A republic is an indirect democracy — the people rule through representatives.

    共和国不是民主 ✗ —— 共和国正是间接民主：人民通过代表行使主权。

  • ✗ “The U.S. is a direct democracy because people vote.” ✓ Voting for representatives is indirect democracy; only voting on the law itself is direct.

    「美国人民投票，所以是直接民主」✗ —— 选代表是间接民主；只有对法律本身投票才是直接民主。

  • ✗ “Unitary means one-party or authoritarian.” ✓ Unitary describes where power sits, not who holds it. Britain is unitary and democratic.

    「单一制＝一党制/专制」✗ —— 单一制说的是权力放在哪，不是谁掌权。英国就是单一制民主国家。

  • ✗ “Federal and confederation are the same.” ✓ In a federation the centre governs citizens directly; in a confederation it depends on member states.

    「联邦制＝邦联」✗ —— 联邦制中央直接治理公民；邦联中央依赖各成员州。

  • ✗ “Autocracy and dictatorship are unrelated.” ✓ Autocracy is the broad category (rule by one); dictatorship is one form of it.

    「专制与独裁无关」✗ —— 专制是上位概念（一人统治），独裁是其中一种形式。

  • ✗ “In a parliamentary system voters elect the prime minister.” ✓ Voters elect the legislature; the majority in parliament chooses the executive.

    「议会制下选民直接选首相」✗ —— 选民选议会，议会多数党（或联盟）产生行政首脑。

  • ✗ “Sovereignty means military strength.” ✓ Sovereignty is legal independence: no outside power can overrule the state inside its territory.

    「主权＝军事实力」✗ —— 主权是法律上的独立：在本国领土内不受外部权威支配。

  • ✗ “Hobbes and Locke taught the same thing.” ✓ Both use a social contract, but Hobbes wants a strong ruler for order; Locke defends natural rights and a right of rebellion.

    「霍布斯与洛克主张相同」✗ —— 两人都用社会契约，但霍布斯要强权保秩序，洛克主张自然权利与反抗权。

  • ✗ “The Articles of Confederation created a strong national government.” ✓ It created the first weak central government — no power to tax or enforce law directly.

    「《邦联条例》建立了强大的中央」✗ —— 它建立的是美国第一个软弱的中央政府，无权直接征税或执法。

5 · Self-Check 自测（15 题）

Pick an option, then press Check. A wrong pick does not reveal the answer: you get a nudge and a second try. After two tries you can choose to show the answer and the explanation. 先选选项，再点 Check / 确认。答错不会立刻公布正确答案，只提示你再试一次；两次之后你可以自己选择「显示答案与解析」。

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